Question
Answer
Classical Conditioning
Learning through association; pairing a neutral stimulus with one that naturally produces a response
Operant Conditioning
Learning through consequences; behaviour is shaped by rewards and punishments
Reinforcement
Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring
Punishment
Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring
Positive Reinforcement
Adding something desirable to increase a behaviour (e.g. giving praise)
Negative Reinforcement
Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour (e.g. removing pain)
Extinction
The gradual disappearance of a learned response when reinforcement stops
Cognition
Mental processes including thinking
Cognitive Dissonance
Discomfort from holding two conflicting beliefs or attitudes
Schema
A mental framework that helps organise and interpret information
Perception
The process of interpreting sensory information
Sensation
The detection of physical stimuli by sensory organs
Attention
The selective focus of conscious awareness on certain stimuli
Short-Term Memory
Temporary storage of information; holds about 7 items for 15–30 seconds
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent storage of information and experiences
Working Memory
System that temporarily holds and manipulates information during tasks
Encoding
The process of converting information into a form stored in memory
Retrieval
Accessing stored information from memory
Recall
Retrieving information without cues
Recognition
Identifying something as previously encountered (e.g. multiple choice)
Repression
Unconsciously blocking distressing memories from conscious awareness
Freud's Id
Primitive unconscious part of personality driven by pleasure principle
Freud's Ego
Rational part of personality operating on reality principle
Freud's Superego
Moral part of personality; internalised social standards
Defence Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies to protect the ego from anxiety
Projection
Attributing your own unacceptable feelings to others
Denial
Refusing to accept reality or facts
Rationalisation
Creating logical explanations for unacceptable behaviour
Displacement
Redirecting emotions from one target to a safer one
Regression
Reverting to earlier
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
A motivational theory ranking human needs from basic to self-actualisation
Self-Actualisation
Realising one's full potential; highest level in Maslow's hierarchy
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation driven by internal rewards (interest
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation driven by external rewards (money
Emotion
A complex psychological state involving physiological arousal and subjective experience
Fight or Flight Response
Physiological reaction preparing the body to confront or flee danger
Stress
A state of tension from perceived demands exceeding resources
Nature vs Nurture
Debate over whether genetics or environment more influences behaviour
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger that transmits signals across a synapse
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter associated with pleasure
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter associated with mood
Cortisol
Stress hormone released by the adrenal glands
Placebo Effect
Improvement from an inactive treatment due to belief in its effectiveness
Conformity
Changing behaviour or beliefs to match a group norm
Obedience
Following instructions from an authority figure
Bystander Effect
The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help when others are present
Fundamental Attribution Error
Overestimating personality and underestimating situation in explaining others' behaviour
Self-Serving Bias
Attributing successes to yourself and failures to external factors
Social Loafing
Tendency to put in less effort when working in a group
Groupthink
Prioritising group harmony over critical thinking
Stereotyping
Overgeneralised belief about a particular group
Prejudice
A preconceived negative attitude toward a group
Discrimination
Unfair treatment based on group membership
IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
A score derived from standardised tests measuring cognitive ability
Standard Deviation
A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean
Normal Distribution
Bell-shaped curve where most scores cluster around the mean
Correlation
A statistical relationship between two variables
Causation
One variable directly causes a change in another
Independent Variable
The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment
Dependent Variable
The variable measured as the outcome in an experiment
Control Group
The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment
Double-Blind Study
Neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment
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